On the various forces of nature and their relations to each other. Michael FaradayЧитать онлайн книгу.
little inflated india-rubber bladders, which are very beautiful although very common (most beautiful things are common), and I am going to put the weight upon it, to give you a sort of illustration of the downward pressure of the iron, and of the power which the air possesses of resisting that pressure. It may burst, but we must try to avoid that [During the last few observations the Lecturer had succeeded in placing the half cwt. in a state of quiescence upon the inflated india-rubber ball, which consequently assumed a shape very much resembling a flat cheese with round edges.] There you see a bubble of air bearing half a hundred weight, and you must conceive for yourselves what a wonderful power there must be to pull this weight downwards, to sink it thus in the ball of air.
Fig. 1.
Let me now give you another illustration of this power. You know what a pendulum is. I have one here (fig. 1), and if I set it swinging, it will continue to swing to and fro. Now, I wonder whether you can tell me why that body oscillates to and fro—that pendulum bob as it is sometimes called. Observe, if I hold the straight stick horizontally, as high as the position of the balls at the two ends of its journey you see that the ball is in a higher position at the two extremities than it is when in the middle. Starting from one end of the stick, the ball falls towards the centre; and then rising again to the opposite end, it constantly tries to fall to the lowest point, swinging and vibrating most beautifully, and with wonderful properties in other respects—the time of its vibration, and so on—but concerning which we will not now trouble ourselves.
If a gold leaf, or piece of thread, or any other substance, were hung where this ball is, it would swing to and fro in the same manner, and in the same time too. Do not be startled at this statement: I repeat, in the same manner and in the same time; and you will see by and by how this is. Now, that power which caused the water to descend in the balance—which made the iron weight press upon and flatten the bubble of air—which caused the swinging to and fro of the pendulum,—that power is entirely due to the attraction which there is between the falling body and the earth. Let us be slow and careful to comprehend this. It is not that the earth has any particular attraction towards bodies which fall to it, but, that all these bodies possess an attraction, every one towards the other. It is not that the earth has any special power which these balls themselves have not; for just as much power as the earth has to attract these two balls [dropping two ivory balls], just so much power have they in proportion to their bulks to draw themselves one to the other; and the only reason why they fall so quickly to the earth is owing to its greater size. Now, if I were to place these two balls near together, I should not be able, by the most delicate arrangement of apparatus, to make you, or myself, sensible that these balls did attract one another: and yet we know that such is the case, because, if instead of taking a small ivory ball, we take a mountain, and put a ball like this near it, we find that, owing to the vast size of the mountain, as compared with the billiard ball, the latter is drawn slightly towards it; shewing clearly that an attraction does exist, just as it did between the shell-lac which I rubbed and the piece of paper which was overturned by it.
Now, it is not very easy to make these things quite clear at the outset, and I must take care not to leave anything unexplained as I proceed; and, therefore, I must make you clearly understand that all bodies are attracted to the earth, or, to use a more learned term, gravitate. You will not mind my using this word; for when I say that this penny-piece gravitates, I mean nothing more nor less than that it falls towards the earth, and if not intercepted, it would go on falling, falling, until it arrived at what we call the centre of gravity of the earth, which I will explain to you by and by.
Fig. 2.
I want you to understand that this property of gravitation is never lost, that every substance possesses it, that there is never any change in the quantity of it; and, first of all, I will take as illustration a piece of marble. Now this marble has weight—as you will see if I put it in these scales; it weighs the balance down, and if I take it off, the balance goes back again and resumes its equilibrium. I can decompose this marble and change it, in the same manner as I can change ice into water and water into steam. I can convert a part of it into its own steam easily, and shew you that this steam from the marble has the property of remaining in the same place at common temperatures, which water-steam has not. If I add a little liquid to the marble, and decompose it6, I get that which you see—[the Lecturer here put several lumps of marble into a glass jar, and poured water and then acid over them; the carbonic acid immediately commenced to escape with considerable effervescence]—the appearance of boiling, which is only the separation of one part of the marble from another. Now this [marble] steam, and that [water] steam, and all other steams gravitate, just like any other substance does—they all are attracted the one towards the other, and all fall towards the earth; and what I want you to see is, that this steam gravitates. I have here (fig. 2) a large vessel placed upon a balance, and the moment I pour this steam into it, you see that the steam gravitates. Just watch the index, and see whether it tilts over or not. [The Lecturer here poured the carbonic acid out of the glass in which it was being generated into the vessel suspended on the balance, when the gravitation of the carbonic acid was at once apparent.] Look how it is going down. How pretty that is! I poured nothing in but the invisible steam, or vapour, or gas which came from the marble, but you see that part of the marble, although it has taken the shape of air, still gravitates as it did before. Now, will it weigh down that bit of paper? [Placing a piece of paper in the opposite scale.] Yes, more than that; it nearly weighs down this bit of paper. [Placing another piece of paper in.] And thus you see that other forms of matter besides solids and liquids tend to fall to the earth; and, therefore, you will accept from me the fact—that all things gravitate, whatever may be their form or condition. Now here is another chemical test which is very readily applied. [Some of the carbonic acid was poured from one vessel into another, and its presence in the latter shewn by introducing into it a lighted taper, which was immediately extinguished.] You see from this result also that it gravitates. All these experiments shew you that, tried by the balance, tried by pouring like water from one vessel to another, this steam, or vapour, or gas, is, like all other things, attracted to the earth.
Fig. 3. and Fig. 4.
There is another point I want in the next place to draw your attention to. I have here a quantity of shot; each of these falls separately, and each has its own gravitating power, as you perceive when I let them fall loosely on a sheet of paper. If I put them into a bottle, I collect them together as one mass; and philosophers have discovered that there is a certain point in the middle of the whole collection of shots that may be considered as the one point in which all their gravitating power is centred, and that point they call the centre of gravity: it is not at all a bad name, and rather a short one—the centre of gravity. Now suppose I take a sheet of pasteboard, or any other thing easily dealt with, and run a bradawl through it at one corner A (fig. 3), and Mr. Anderson hold that up in his hand before us, and I then take a piece of thread and an ivory ball, and hang that upon the awl—then the centre of gravity of both the pasteboard and the ball and string are as near as they can get to the centre of the earth; that is to say, the whole of the attracting power of the earth is, as it were, centred in a single point of the cardboard—and this point is exactly below the point of suspension. All I have to do, therefore, is to draw a line, A B, corresponding with the string, and we shall find that the centre of gravity is somewhere in that line. But where? To find that out, all we have to do is to take another place for the awl (fig. 4), hang the plumb-line, and make the same experiment, and there [at the point C] is the centre of gravity—there where the two lines which I have traced cross each other; and if I take that pasteboard, and make a hole with the bradawl through it at that point, you will see that it will be supported in any position in which it may be placed. Now, knowing that, what do I do when I try to stand upon one leg? Do you not see that I push myself over to the left side, and quietly take up the right leg, and thus bring some central point in my body over this left leg. What is that point which I throw