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1.2. The Hubble–Sandage (Sandage 1961) revised “tuning fork” representati...Figure 1.3. The de Vaucouleurs (1959) revised Hubble-Sandage (VRHS) system of ga...Figure 1.4. A cross-section through the CVRHS system of families and varieties i...Figure 1.5. Examples of elliptical galaxies ranging from round in apparent shape...Figure 1.6. E⁺ galaxies are generally elliptical galaxies with very subtle trace...Figure 1.7. Examples of disky and boxy elliptical galaxies. Generally, the disky...Figure 1.8. Twelve examples of dust-lane (d.l.) early-type galaxies, including e...Figure 1.9. A sequence of stages for non-barred galaxies in the VRHS/CVRHS syste...Figure 1.10. A sequence of stages for barred galaxies in the VRHS/CVRHS system Figure 1.11. A sequence of increasing apparent bar strength Figure 1.12. Bars showing enhanced “handles”, or ansae. The features appear in s...Figure 1.13. Three edge-on galaxies showing boxy/peanut-type bulges Figure 1.14. Examples of different inner varieties Figure 1.15. Examples of spiral galaxies having a nuclear ring Figure 1.16. Examples of different types of outer features. The feature type is ...Figure 1.17. Outer resonant features. The feature type is in the upper right of ...Figure 1.18. Twelve examples of barred galaxies having a “barlens”, which refers...Figure 1.19. Stage sequences for both barred and non-barred S0 galaxies Figure 1.20. Magellanic irregular galaxies Figure 1.21. Edge-on galaxies from stage Sa to stage Im. The “sp” stands for “sp...Figure 1.22. Embedded disks and thick/thin disks. The main embedded disk cases s...Figure 1.23. Examples of interacting and merging galaxies Figure 1.24. Possible examples of cataclymic ring galaxies. Top row: collisional...Figure 1.25. Distribution of CVRHS stages from (a) Buta (2019; EFIGI), (b) Buta ...Figure 1.26. Systematics of CVRHS classifications from Buta (2019; EFIGI). The s...Figure 1.27. Images of four relatively isolated grand-design spirals (Buta et al...Figure 1.28. Three galaxies showing outer resonant subclass features. The white ...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1. Left panel: The Sb-type barred spiral galaxy UGC 12158, often consid...Figure 2.2. Left column, top panel: Map of the surface density of HI in the Gala...Figure 2.3. Left column: Vertical distribution of SDSS stellar counts at the sol...Figure 2.4. The Galactic warp as traced by classical Cepheids (Skowron et al. 20...Figure 2.5. Top-left panel: The distribution of HII regions overlaid with a poss...Figure 2.6. Top panels: Regular orbits supporting a boxy/peanut-shaped bulge (le...Figure 2.7. Left panels: The Galactic bulge as observed in the near-infrared by ...Figure 2.8. Top figure: A map of the sky showing the numbers of stars counted in...Figure 2.9. Heated disc stars in the stellar halo, as found in a N-body simulati...Figure 2.10. The circular velocity curve of the Milky Way (black points), betwee...Figure 2.11. Top panel: [Mg/Fe] abundances versus [Fe/H] for a sample of stars a...Figure 2.12. Left panels: [Mg/Fe] and [α/Fe] abundances versus [Fe/H] for a samp...Figure 2.13. [α/Fe] versus age relation for a sample of disc stars at the solar ...Figure 2.14. Top panels: Mono-abundance populations as a function of their posit...Figure 2.15. Top panel: Sky distribution of stars possibly associated with Gaia ...Figure 2.16. Rotational versus radial velocity of metal-poor stars at a few kpc ...Figure 2.17. Observed bulge kinematics (black points) compared to models of a Mi...Figure 2.18. Left panels: In-plane (top) and edge-on (bottom) projections of the...Figure 2.19. The star formation history of the Galactic disc, as derived from th...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1. Early-type (elliptical) galaxy ESO325-G0004 surrounded by other gala...Figure 3.2. Early-type galaxies NGC3115 (left) and NGC4594 (right; the Sombrero ...Figure 3.3. Light profiles of 5 ETGs, illustrating the variety of central profil...Figure 3.4. Mass plane for ETGs (top) and spiral galaxies (bottom), showing the ...Figure 3.5. Age, abundance α/F e and metallicity (weighted by the light) as a fu...Figure 3.6. Age and metallicity gradients (weighted by the stellar mass) as a fu...Figure 3.7. Difference (log) between the dynamical mass and the stellar mass, as...Figure 3.8. Illustration of the V /σ-ϵ diagram, explaining the concept of anisot...Figure 3.9. Velocity (top) and velocity dispersion fields (bottom) for regular a...Figure 3.10. λ_{R − ϵ} diagrams. Left: Version with 260 ETGs from the Atlas^3D sampl...Figure 3.11. λ_{R − ϵ} diagram for a sample of more than 4,000 galaxies (Graham et ...Figure 3.12. Kinematic classification of galaxies refining the terms developed b...Figure 3.13. Relations between the distribution function f, the gravitational po...Figure 3.14. Schwarzschild model of NGC 3115. From top to bottom: Velocity, disp...Figure 3.15. Compilation of mass measurements of supermassive black holes in nea...Figure 3.16. Illustration of the distribution of different types of galaxies as ...Figure 3.17. Passive galaxies (red points) and galaxies with star formation (blu...Figure 3.18. Evolution of galaxies in a simulation with a cosmological context. ...Figure 3.19. Fraction of ex situ mass in ETGs as a function of the stellar mass ...Figure 3.20. Two clusters with different richnesses (Virgo on the left, Coma on ...Figure 3.21. Evolution of measured quantities for a sample of ETGs in the plane ...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1. (a) Secular evolution of galaxies: when gas falls into a dark matter...Figure 4.2. The stellar halos of the Milky Way and Andromeda reveal evidence of ...Figure 4.3. Distribution of galaxies by luminosity (log-log diagram): the red po...Figure 4.4. Color (u-r)-stellar mass diagram for all galaxies combined (top left...Figure 4.5. Histograms of the number of galaxies by morphological Hubble type (a...Figure 4.6. Fraction of red galaxies as a function of the stellar mass M, rangin...Figure 4.7. Surface density at galaxy centers as a function of the stellar mass ...Figure 4.8. Distribution of galaxies in the diagram of star formation rate (SFR)...Figure 4.9. Gas distribution in a simulation that follows the life of a galaxy f...Figure 4.10. Two examples of spiral galaxies: on the left, Messier 51, which has...Figure 4.11. A typical stellar orbit in the epicyclic approximation. At order ze...Figure 4.12. Left: Frequencies of the rotation curve of a typical galaxy, simila...Figure 4.13. Winding direction of the spiral arms relative to the direction of r...Figure 4.14. Wave dispersion relation, revisited by Dobbs and Baba (2014). The r...Figure 4.15. Illustration of the amplification of the swing. In this simulation,...Figure 4.16. Multicolor image obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope. The region...Figure 4.17. High-resolution simulation of the gas in a spiral galaxy, with the ...Figure 4.18. The fraction of coherent spiral or “grand design” structures as a f...Figure 4.19. (a) Simulations of a self-gravitating disc, containing stars (top p...Figure 4.20. Left: Shape of the equipotential lines in the frame that rotates wi...Figure 4.21. Periodic orbits characteristic of a barred galaxy in the rotating f...Figure 4.22. Due to collisions between gas clouds, the streamlines of the inters...Figure 4.23. Diagram showing the direction of the gravity torques

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