Counseling the Culturally Diverse. Laura Smith L.Читать онлайн книгу.
experiential reality of being may feel that the therapist lacks respect for them and is rushing them (Sutton & Broken Nose, 2005) while ignoring the quality of the personal relationship. On the other hand, therapists may be dismayed by the “delays,” “inefficiency,” and lack of “commitment to change” among the family members, feeling that they have only limited time to impact the family. The result is frequently dissatisfaction among the parties, a failure to establish rapport, misinterpretation of behaviors or situations, and discontinuation of future sessions.
Second, Inclan (1985) pointed out how confusions and misinterpretations can arise because Latinx communities may mark time differently than do their U.S. White counterparts. The language of clock time in counseling (the 50‐minute hour, rigid time schedules, once‐a‐week sessions) can conflict with diverse perceptions of time (Garcia‐Preto, 1996). The following dialogue illustrates this point:
Mrs. Rivera, your next appointment is at 9:30 a.m. next Wednesday.”
“Good, it's convenient for me to come after I drop off the children at school.”
Or “Mrs. Rivera, your next appointment is for the whole family at 3:00 p.m. on Tuesday.”
“Very good. After the kids return from school we can come right in.” (Inclan, 1985, p. 328)
Since school starts at 8 a.m., the client may show up very early, whereas in the second example, the client may be late (school ends at 3 p.m.). In both cases, the counselor is likely to feel inconvenienced, but worse yet is the negative interpretation that may be made of the client's motives (anxious, demanding, or pushy in the first case, and resistant, passive‐aggressive, or irresponsible in the latter). The counselor needs to be aware that other cultural communities may mark time more by events than by the clock.
RELATIONAL DIMENSION
In general, the United States can be characterized as an achievement‐oriented society, which is strongly manifested in the prevailing Protestant work ethic. Basic to the Protestant work ethic is the concept of individualism: (a) the individual is the psychosocial unit of operation; (b) the individual has primary responsibility for his or her own actions; (c) independence and autonomy are highly valued and rewarded; and (d) one should be internally directed and controlled. In many societies and groups within the United States, however, this value is not necessarily shared. Identification with others in Japan and China extends widely throughout the family and is also linked to the past (as in ancestor worship). Obeying the wishes of ancestors or deceased parents and perceiving one's existence and identity as connected to the historical past are inseparable parts of one's own identity. In fact, most racial/ethnic groups in the United States tend to be more collateral or collectivistic than do White European Americans in their relationships with people. In an individualistic orientation, the definition of the family tends to be linked to well‐defined biological first‐degree relatedness (as in the nuclear family), whereas a collateral or lineal view prioritized various concepts of the extended family. Not understanding this distinction and the values inherent in these orientations may lead a family therapist to erroneous conclusions and decisions.
Counselors may fail to realize that, for example, an American Indian family network may be structurally open and understood to include several households of relatives and friends along both vertical and horizontal lines, all of whom are considered as brothers and sisters. Likewise, African Americans have strong kinship bonds that may encompass both blood relatives and friends. Traditional African culture values the collective orientation over individualism (Franklin, 1988; Hines & Boyd‐Franklin, 2005). This group identity has also been reinforced by what many African Americans describe as the sense of “peoplehood” that developed as a result of the common experience of racism and discrimination. In a society that has historically been destructive of the Black family, near and distant relatives, neighbors, friends, and acquaintances have arisen in an extended family support network (Black, 1996). Thus, in their therapist's view, a Black family may appear to be configured differently from the conventional nuclear family. The corresponding danger is that corresponding value judgments made by a White therapist may be totally without merit and/or may be translated in such a way as to alienate or damage the self‐esteem of African Americans. For example, the absence of a father in a Black family does not mean that the children do not have a father figure—this function may be filled by another relative or family friend.
ACTIVITY DIMENSION
One of the characteristics of White European American cultural values is an action (or doing) orientation: we must master and control nature and we must always do something about a situation. Correspondingly, in counseling, we often expect clients to master and control their own lives and environment, to take action to resolve their own problems, and to fight against bias and inaction. The doing mode is evident everywhere and is reflected in how White Americans identify themselves by what they do—their occupations. “And what do you do?” is a typical conversation‐starter, and children are routinely asked what they want to do when they grow up. A higher value is given to inventors over poets, and to doctors of medicine over doctors of philosophy. An essay topic commonly given to schoolchildren returning to school in the fall is, “What I Did on My Summer Vacation.”
Traditionally, both American Indians and Latinx Americans often prefer a being or being‐in‐becoming mode of activity rather than a doing and what‐I‐did mode. The American Indian concepts of self‐determination and noninterference are examples. Value is placed on the spiritual quality of being, as manifested in self‐containment, poise, and harmony with the universe. Value is placed on the attainment of inner fulfillment and the essential serenity of one's place in the universe. Because each person is fulfilling a purpose, no one should have the power to interfere or impose values. Often, those unfamiliar with American Indian values misperceive these clients as stoic, aloof, passive, or inactive. In working with families, the counselor role of “active manipulator” may clash with these concepts of being‐in‐becoming.
Likewise, Latinx culture may be said to have a more here‐and‐now or being‐in‐becoming orientation. Like their American Indian counterparts, Latinx traditions emphasize that people are born with dignidad (dignity) and must be given respeto (respect). They are born with innate worth and importance, and the inner soul and spirit are more important than the body. People cannot always be held accountable for their lot in life (status, role, etc.) because they are born into this life state (Inclan, 1985). A certain degree of fatalismo (fatalism) is present, and life events may be viewed as inevitable (Lo que Dios manda, “what God wills”). Philosophically, it does not matter what people have in life or what position they occupy—everyone is entitled to respeto. Since this belief system deemphasizes material accomplishments as a measure of personal success, it is at odds with European American middle‐class society. Although a doing‐oriented family may define a member's worth via achievement, a being orientation equates worth simply with belonging. Thus, when clients complain that someone is not an effective family member, what do they mean? Is it a complaint that the family member is not performing and achieving, as the therapist may initially suspect, or does it mean that they are not respectful and accommodating to family structures and values? Such issues need to be clarified by the therapist before assumptions are made.
NATURE OF PEOPLE DIMENSION
Middle‐class European Americans generally perceive the nature of people as neutral. Environmental influences, such as conditioning, family upbringing, and socialization, are believed to be dominant forces in determining the nature of the person. People are neither good nor bad, but are influenced by their environment. Although several cultural groups may share features of this belief with White Americans, there may be qualitative differences that shape views of family structure and dynamics. For example, African American culture may also be characterized as affirming that people are basically neutral, and that environmental factors have a great influence on how people develop.