Machine learning in practice – from PyTorch model to Kubeflow in the cloud for BigData. Eugeny ShtoltcЧитать онлайн книгу.
to the width and height of the analyzing screen, divided by the step of shifting the analyzing window. The dimension of the second layer in neurons is equal to the dimension of the analyzed window in order to be able to identify the digit. If we make connections from all the neurons of the search layer to the analysis window layer, then the network at the output will get a set of images poured together. The next layer will be measured by the number of analyzed digit elements. For example, a figure can be represented as an incompletely filled eight, then there will be seven segments to be painted. All neurons in the convolutional layer will be connected to all neurons in the digit segment analysis layer. The task of the neuron of this layer is to be connected with the neurons of the previous one, responsible for this segment and to give the result of the presence or absence of this segment in the digital. The next layer has ten neurons, corresponding to numbers from zero to nine. In total, its neurons are connected to the previous layer and are activated when receiving signals from them. So, the neuron branching for the number one will be activated if it receives information that the two extreme right sectors will be active and all the others are not active.
At the output, we will receive the activation of that output neuron that corresponds to a certain number. It does this on the basis of data received from neurons from the previous layer, which are responsible for the digit sectors, namely from which neurons the signals came and which ones did not. Let's take that the incoming signals from neurons through the connections are zero, that is, the sector is not filled, if one, then the sector is painted. Then, the weights of the links from the right sectors are half, which will give one, while the rest have negative weights, which will not give one at the output if some other sector is activated. At the output of the neuron, there is a normalizer that decides for the decision. He needs to decide, based on the input data and weights, to give one or zero. To do this, it multiplies the input data by the weights, adds them, and outputs one or zero based on the threshold value. This normalizer is needed so that, after summing up the information coming from neurons, it will transfer logical information to the next layer of neurons, the degree of importance of which will be determined by the weights on the receiving neuron, and not by them. For this, functions are used that convert the entire range of input signal levels to the range from zero to one. Such a function is called activation functions and is selected for the entire neural network. There are many functions that consider everything less than one to be zero. The weights themselves are not encoded, but are selected during training. Teaching is either supervised or ansupervised and suitable for different classes of tasks. When teaching without a teacher (auto-encoders and generating networks), we give data to the input of the neurons of the network about the expectation when it itself finds some patterns, while the data is not labeled (does not have any labels by classification), which will allow us to identify previously unknown features, similarities and differences, and classifies according to not yet found signs, but how this will happen is difficult to predict. For most tasks, we need to get a classification according to the given groups, for which we input a training set with marked data containing labels about the correct solution (for example, classification, and try to achieve a match with this test set. It can also be reinforced), in which the network tries to find the best solution based on incentives, for example, when playing to achieve superiority over an opponent, but for now, we will postpone consideration of this learning strategy for later. When teaching with a teacher, much less attempts to pick up the weight are required, but still it is from several hundred to tens of thousands, while the network itself contains a huge number of connections. In order to find the weights, we select them by selection and directed refinement. With each pass, we reduce the error, and when the accuracy suits us, we can submit a test sample to validate the quality of the cut ( the network could learn badly or retrain), then you can use the network. However, the numbers may be slightly skewed, but because we are highlighting the areas, this does not greatly affect the accuracy.
When a neuron is trained with a teacher, we send training signals to it and get results at the output. For each input and output signal, we receive a result about the degree of error in prediction. When we ran all the training signals, we got a set (vector) of errors that can be represented as a function of errors. This error function depends on the input parameters (weights) and we need to find the weights at which this error function becomes minimal. To determine these weights, the Gradient Descent algorithm is used, the essence of which is to gradually move to the local target, and the direction of movement is determined by the derivative of this function and the activation function. The activation function is usually sigmoid for regular networks or truncated ReLU for deep networks. Sigmoid outputs a range from zero to one at all times. The truncated ReLU still allows for very large numbers (information is very important) at the input to transfer more than one to the output, there they themselves affect the layers that follow immediately after. For example, the dot above the dash separates the letter L from the letter i, and the information of one pixel affects the decision making at the output, so it is important not to lose this feature and transfer it to the last level. There are not so many varieties of activation functions – they are limited by the requirements for ease of training when it is required to take a derivative. So the sigmoid f after arbitrarily turns into f (1-f), which is effective. With Leaky ReLu (truncated ReLu with leakage) it is even simpler, since it takes the value 0 at x <0, then its wired in this section is also 0, and at x> = 0 it takes 0.01 * x, which with the derivative will be will be 0.01, and for x> 1 it takes 1 + 0.01 * x, which gives 0.01 for the derivative. Calculation is not required here at all, so learning is much faster.
Since we send the sum of the products of signals by their weights to the input of the activation function, then conceived, we need a different threshold level than from 0.5. We can shift it by a constant, adding it to the sum at the input to the activation function using the bias neuron to remember it. It has no inputs and always outputs one, and the offset itself is set by the weight of the connection with it. But, for multi-neural networks, it is not required, since the weights themselves by the previous layers are adjusted to such a size (smaller or negative) in order to use the standard threshold level – this gives standardization, but requires a larger number of neurons.
When training a neuron, we know the error of the network itself, that is, on the input neurons. Based on them, you can calculate the error in the previous layer and so on up to the input – which is called the Backpropagation method.
The learning process itself can be divided into stages: initialization, learning itself, and prediction.
If our figure can be of different sizes, then pooling layers are applied, which scale the image down. Which algorithm will calculate what will be written when merging depends on the algorithm, usually this is the “max” function for the “max pooling” or “avg” algorithm (mean-square value of neighboring matrix cells) – average pooling.
We already have a few layers. But, in neural networks used in practice, there can be a lot of them. Networks with more than four layers are commonly called deep neural networks (DML, Deep ML). But, there can be a lot of them, so there are 152 of them in ResNet and this is far from the deepest network. But, as you have already noticed, the number of layers is not taken, according to the principle, the more the better, but prototyped. An excessive amount degrades the quality due to attenuation, unless certain solutions are used for this, such as data forwarding with subsequent summation. Examples of neural network architectures include ResNeXt, SENet, DenseNet, Inception-Res Net-V2, Inception-V4, Xception, NASNet, MobileNet V2, Shuffle Net, and Squeeze Net. Most of these networks are designed for image analysis and it is the images that often contain the greatest amount of detail and the largest number of operations is assigned to these networks, which determines their depth. We will consider one of such architectures when creating a number classification network – LeNet-5, created in 1998.
If we need not just to recognize a number or a letter, but their sequence, the meaning inherent in them, we need a connection between them. For this, the neural network, after analyzing the first letter, poisons the result of the analysis of the current one along with the next letter to its input. This can be compared to dynamic memory, and a network that implements this principle is called recurrent (RNN). Examples of such networks (with feedbacks): Kohonen's network, Hopfield's network, ART-model. The recurrent network analyzes text, speech, video information, translates from one language into another, generates text descriptions for images, generates speech (WaveNet MoL, Tacotron 2), categorizes texts by content