Nature's Teachings: Human Invention Anticipated by Nature. J. G. WoodЧитать онлайн книгу.
little vessel floating about at random, and its only object being to keep afloat. But there are many cases where the propelling power is absolutely essential, and where its absence would mean death, as much as it would to a ship which was becalmed in mid ocean without any means of progress or escape. There are, for example, hundreds of creatures, belonging to every order of animals, which are absolutely dependent for their very existence on their power of propulsion, and I believe that there is not a single mode of aquatic progression employed by man which has not been previously carried out in the animal world. There are so many examples of this fact that I am obliged to select a very few typical instances in proof of the assertion.
Taking the Oar as the natural type of progression in the water, we have in the insect world numerous examples of the very same principle on which our modern boats are propelled. And it is worthy of notice, that the greater the improvement in rowing, the nearer do we approach the original insect model.
The first which we shall notice is the insect which, from its singular resemblance to a boat propelled by a pair of oars, has received the popular name of Water-boatman. Its scientific name is Notonecta glauca, the meaning of which we shall presently see. It belongs to the order of Heteroptera, and is one of a numerous group, all bearing some resemblance to each other in form, and being almost identical in habits. Though they can fly well, and walk tolerably, they pass the greater part of their existence in the water, in which element they find their food.
Predacious to a high degree, and armed with powerful weapons of offence, it is one of the pirates of the fresh water, and may be found in almost every pond and stream, plying its deadly vocation.
Its large and powerful wings seem only to be employed in carrying it from one piece of water to another, while its first and second pairs of legs are hardly ever used at all for progression. The last pair of legs are of very great length, and furnished at their tips with a curiously constructed fringe of stiff hairs. The body is shaped in a manner that greatly resembles a boat turned upside down, the edge of the elytra forming a sort of ridge very much like the keel of the boat.
When the creature is engaged in swimming, it turns itself on its back, so as to bring the keel downwards, and to be able to cut the water with the sharp edge. From this habit it has derived the name of Notonecta, which signifies an animal which swims on its back. The first and second pairs of legs are clasped to the body, and the last pair are stretched out as shown in the illustration, not only looking like oars, but being actually used as oars.
Now, I wish especially to call the reader’s attention to the curiously exact parallel between the water-boatman and the human oarsman. As the reader may probably know, the oar is a lever of the second order, i.e. the power comes first, then the weight, and then the fulcrum. The arm of the rower furnishes the power, the boat is the weight to be moved, and the water is the fulcrum against which the lever acts.
I have more than once heard objections to this definition, the objectors saying that the water was a yielding substance, and therefore could not be the fulcrum. This objection, however, was easily refuted by taking a boat up a narrow creek, and rowing with the oar-blades resting on the shore, and not in the water.
Now, the swimming legs of the water-boatman are exact analogues of the oars of a human rower. The internal muscles at the juncture of the leg with the body supply the place of the rower’s arms, the leg itself takes the office of the oar, and the body of the insect is the weight to be moved, and the water supplies the fulcrum. Even the broad blade at the end of the oar is anticipated by the fringe of bristles at the end of the leg, and its sharpened edge by the shape of the insect’s limb.
Besides these resemblances, there is another which is worthy of notice. All rowers know that one of their first lessons is to “feather” their oars, i.e. to turn the blade edgewise as soon as it leaves the water. Nothing looks more awkward than for a boatman to row without feathering. (We all must remember the eulogy on the “Jolly Young Waterman,” who “feathered his oars with skill and dexterity.”) In the first place, he must lift his oar very high out of the water, and, in the second, he will be impeded by any wind that happens to come against the blades.
The Water-boatman, however, does not lift its legs out of the water after every stroke, as a human boatman does, and therefore it has no need to feather in the same way. But there is even greater need for a feathering of some kind in the insect’s leg, on account of the greater resistance offered by water than by air, and this feathering is effected by the arrangement of the blade-bristles, which spread themselves against the water as the stroke is made, and collapse afterwards, so as to give as little resistance as possible when the stroke is completed.
In Art we have invented many similar contrivances, but I believe that there is not one in which we have not been anticipated by Nature. Putting aside the insect which has just been described, we have the whole tribe of water-beetles, in which the same principle is carried out in an almost identical manner. In the accompanying illustration, the oar, the rower, and the boat are placed above one another, and next to them are seen one of the oar-legs of the water-boatman and the insect as it appears when swimming on its back.
Then, there is the foot of the duck, goose, swan, and various other aquatic birds, in which the foot presents a broad blade as it strikes against the water, and a narrow edge as it recovers from the stroke. Some years ago, a steam yacht was built and propelled by feet made on the model of those of the swan. She was a very pretty vessel, but art could not equal nature, and at present the swan-foot propeller, however perfect in theory, has not succeeded in action. Perhaps, if some nautical engineer were to take it in hand, he would procure the desired result.
Almost exactly similar is the mode of propulsion employed by the lobster, the prawns and shrimps, their tails expanding widely into a fan-like shape as they strike against the water, and then collapsing when the stroke is withdrawn, so as to allow them to pass through the water with the least possible resistance.
The same principle is to be seen in the lively little Acaleph, for which there is unfortunately no popular name, and which we must therefore call by its scientific title of Cydippe, or Beroë, these names being almost indifferently used. When full grown, it is about as large as an acorn, and very much of the same shape. It is as transparent as if made of glass, and, when in the water, is only visible to practised eyes.
En passant, I may remark that the familiar term of “water,” when applied to diamonds, is owing to their appearance when placed in distilled water. Those which can be at once seen are called stones of the second water. Those which cannot be seen, because their refractive powers are equal to those of the water, are called “diamonds of the first water,” and are very much more valuable than the others.
As the Cydippe is, in fact, little more than sea-water, entangled in the slightest imaginable and most transparent tissue of animal fibre, it is evident that the water and the Cydippe must be of almost equal refracting power, and that therefore the acaleph must be as invisible as diamonds of the “first water.” Indeed, I have often had specimens in a glass jar which were absolutely invisible to persons to whom I wished to show them.
But an experienced eye detects the creature at once. Along its body, at equal distances, are eight narrow bands, over which the colours of the rainbow are, though very faint, perpetually rippling. This appearance is caused by the machinery which impels the body, and which seems never to cease. Each of these bands is composed of a vast number of tiny flaps, which move up and down in regular succession, so as to cause the light to play on their surfaces. And, as they move as if set on hinges, they of course offer no resistance to the water after their stroke is made.
Now let us compare these works of nature with those of art. We have already seen the parallels of the oar, and we now come to those of the paddle-wheel. When paddle-steamers were first invented,