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Applications of Chitinous Polysaccharides
In application development of microbial chitinous polysaccharides, several polymer structures can be constructed from nanofibers or nanoparticles for food formulations or biomedical devices, hydrogels for drug delivery systems or films, and scaffolds/composites or tablets for pharmaceutical formulations [155,215,238,239].
The diversity of polymer structures and their physicochemical and biological properties have attracted an increasing interest on these polysaccharides for several and diverse areas, such as biomedical devices, pharmaceutical industry, food products, cosmetic formulations, agriculture, and textiles or even on wastewater treatment (Table 2.4) [234,235,241].
Table 2.4 Microbial chitinous polysaccharide properties and applications.
| Polysaccharide | Source | Properties | Applications | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chitin | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | Antifungal | Disease resistance against Botrytis cinerea infection in tomato fruit | [224] |
| Chitin | Rhizopus oryzae | Anti‐hepatotoxic effect, antioxidant | Pharma formulation to prevent the liver damage against paracetamol and increase the body's defense system | [240] |
| Chitosan | S. cerevisiae, Rhizopus arhizus | Metal ion sorption | Wastewater treatment | [241] |
| Chitosan | Aspergillus niger | Biocompatibility and swelling capacity | Hydrogel support for controlled release of the histidine analogous, betahistine | [215] |
| Chitin–glucan complex | A. niger | Anticholesterol | Fiber with potential therapeutic utility for coronary heart diseases, obesity, and diabetes | |
| Chitin–glucan complex | A. niger | Heavy metal and nucleotide absorption capacity | Food additive | [246] |
| Chitin–glucan complex | A. niger | Water absorption capacity, antiaging effect | Cosmetic formulation for antiaging products | [247,248] |
| Chitin/chitosan–glucan complex | Schizophyllum commune | Antibacterial, noncytotoxic, wound healing capacity | Micro and non‐woven fiber for wound healing | [229] |
2.7.3.1 Biomedical Applications
Chitin, chitosan, and chitinous polysaccharides have been subject of increasing interest on the biomedical field due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and nontoxicity [237]. Moreover, these polysaccharides also have biological activity including anticancer and antibacterial activity [234]. They are also immunostimulating, antithrombogenic, hemostatic, and wound healing [234,235]. These properties make these biopolymers interesting materials for drug delivery systems, tissue engineering, or wound healing products.
Chitin and chitosan can be used as drug/vitamin carriers and excipients in films, hydrogels, or powders for drug delivery systems or ophthalmologic formulations [228,234]. For example, chitosan hydrogels were already used as support for the controlled release of betahistine (a histidine analog) [215] (Table 2.4). Chitosan can also be used in contact lenses for eyes due to its optical clarity, mechanical stability, and wettability [235].
Chitin‐based materials are promising materials for tissue engineering of nerves, blood vessels, or scaffolds for regenerative medicine. These structures have high porosity and structural integrity that promote cell adhesion and encourage cell function as important features for regenerative materials [228,235]. These polysaccharides also contribute to the activation of immune system, which was already demonstrated in some in vitro and in vivo trials [249].
Chitinous polysaccharides are also commonly used as wound healing fibers [229] (Table 2.4). Some chitin and chitosan products are already commercially available, for example, in form of sponges, nonwoven dressings for burns or skin abrasions, and several other injuries, as well as gels for internal wounds [228].
2.7.3.2 Pharmaceutical Applications
Similar to biomedical applications, chitinous polysaccharides are also interesting materials for the pharmaceutical industry, due to its antimicrobial, antitumor, antioxidant, anticholesterol and hemostatic effect, and wound healing [250]. Chitin extracted from R. oryzae was shown to have anti‐hepatotoxic effect, preventing the liver damage against paracetamol and contributes to the increasing of body's defense system [240]. A. niger CGC was shown to prevent the early development of atherosclerosis in in vivo studies [251]. In pharma applications, these biomaterials can be used as carriers of encapsulated drugs for drug delivery devices, vaccine adjuvants, or an excipient powder that can be used as binder, disintegrator, and/or a lubricant agent [234,235,252].
2.7.3.3 Food Applications
Chitinous polysaccharides are also used as dietary fibers in some food products, since they have the capacity of lowering the cholesterol levels by blocking the absorption of fat and cholesterols in organism and are a glucose‐lowering agent [234,250]. In this way, these fibers facilitate the weight and fat loss and have a control over nutrition [234]. For example, there are several reports showing that the addition of fungal CGC as a fiber in food formulations has a beneficial effect in the development of obesity and diabetes and in the treatment of heart diseases [242,243,245] (Table 2.4).
Chitosan is also known to be beneficial for food preservation as a coating for food packaging, acting as an inhibitor of microbial growth [207].
2.7.3.4 Other Applications
Chitosan and CGC are used as a component of some cosmetic products such as hand and body creams, hair care products, or toothpaste. For example, chitosan protects hair from mechanical damage and exhibits an anti‐electrostatic effect on hair. Other chitosan benefits on cosmetic formulations include the water resistance and sun irradiation protection of chitosan emulsions, activation of fibroblasts, collagen deposition improvement, antiseptic properties, and skin protection from microbial infections [207,235]. Similar to chitosan, A. niger CGC is also already used as a natural scaffold for skin moisturization and rejuvenation [247,248].
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