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injected into TiO2 back to the oxidized light absorber and hole injection into the IrOx catalyst is shifted in favor of catalysis, thus improving the quantum efficiency of water oxidation by a factor of three. The approach offers substantial room for further efficiency improvement because the relative position of the light absorber and the catalyst with the attached mediator is not yet molecularly defined in the present system.
Recently, earth‐abundant inorganic oxide catalysts have been widely used in water oxidation, accompanied with CO2 photoreduction. In the past decades, Ir oxide nanoclusters have been viewed as efficient catalysts for water oxidation, which can be used to assemble directly various fashion systems for closing the photosynthetic cycle on the nanoscale. For example, Kim et al. prepared an all‐inorganic polynuclear unit consisting of an oxo‐bridged binuclear ZrOCoII group with iridium oxide nanocluster assembled on SBA‐15 silica mesopore surface, which could produce CO and O2 simultaneously [81]. Apart from Ir‐based cocatalyst, other noble metals also are applied into the CO2 photoreduction and water oxidation by deposition on semiconducting materials. For example, Fan et al. fabricated a binary functional photocatalyst by loading Au@Pd nanoparticles onto oxygen vacancy‐rich TiO2 through surfactant‐free deposition–reduction method [82]. The obtained VO‐rich TiO2 contributes more protons to water oxidation process, and meanwhile, the metallic Au@Pd sites are beneficial for CO2 activation and proton supply. By varying the ratio of Au@Pd nanoparticles and VO concentration, CH4 selectivity of 96% can be obtained with minimal H2 production. However, the Ir oxide or other noble metals are not a viable component for a scalable artificial photosystem because of the scarcity of this element. Therefore, earth‐abundant metal oxides are developed as robust alternatives. For example, Yu et al. Cl‐doped Cu2O nanorods for photocatalytic CO2 reduction conjugated with H2O oxidation under visible‐light irradiation [83]. Owing to the introduction of Cl atoms, the band structure of Cu2O is optimized, leading to a more positive VB position for water oxidation, which promotes CO2 activation and separation and transfer efficiency of photoinduced charge carriers. As a result, in Figure 2.14, the Cl‐doped Cu2O composite exhibits excellent photocatalytic CO2 reduction performance accompanied by favorable water oxidation ability under visible‐light irradiation. DFT calculations demonstrate that the doping of Cl atoms facilitates to transform CO2 into the intermediates of *COOH, *CO, and *CH3O, which could enhance production of reductive CO and CH4 and oxidative O2. The CO, CH4, and O2 amount were improved to 1.74 μmol cm−2, 0.39 μmol cm−2, and 1.32 μmol cm−2, respectively, for the Cu2O–Cl‐4, as shown in Figure 2.14a. Furthermore, it is found that the Cl‐doped Cu2O composite displays stronger affinity toward the *CO intermediate, which tends to be protonated and ultimately produce CH4, leading to higher selectivity of CH4 than that of pure Cu2O.
Figure 2.14 (a) Gas production under six hours visible‐light irradiation of pure Cu2O and Cl‐doped Cu2O samples. (b) Mass spectrum from the 18O‐labeling H2O isotope experiments of Cu2O–Cl‐4. (c) Time‐dependent product evolution over Cu2O–Cl‐4 under visible‐light irradiation. (d) Stability test of Cu2O–Cl‐4. (e) Proposed reaction pathways of CO2RR to CO and CH4 on Cl‐doped Cu2O.
Source: Yu et al. [83].
Based on early reports of electro‐ or light‐driven Co and Mn oxide catalysts, the findings display that these catalysts have the TOFs per metal center in the range 10−4 to 10−2 O2 s−1 at overpotentials in the 30–400 mV range depending on the structure, pH, and temperature conditions, which are at least 2 orders of magnitude lower than TOF of IrO2 clusters at similar overpotential [84]. In the past several years, therefore, intense efforts have been paid to enhance the TOF per projected area of the catalyst by optimizing the Co‐, Mn‐, and Ni‐based metal oxide. For example, amorphous Co species (a‐Co‐E) synthesized through thermal treatment of a Co‐ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid complex were combined with Bi2WO6, and the product exhibited an impressively higher photocatalytic O2 evolution rate than that of the CoOx‐loaded counterparts [85]. The findings suggested that the photocatalytic O2 production rate of the Bi2WO6/a‐Co‐E hybrid is apparently enhanced to 352.3 μmol g−1 h−1 with no obvious decrease in six hours, which is 3.6 times higher than that of Bi2WO6/CoOx, testifying the excellent capability of a‐Co‐E to function as the cocatalyst over CoOx. Graphitic carbon nitride and cubic cobalt manganese spinel (c‐CoMn2O4) as light transducer and water oxidation cocatalyst were used to assemble effective water oxidation system [86]. Owing to acceleration of interface charge transfer rate and decreasing of the excessive energy barrier for O–O formation, the oxygen evolution rate of the g‐C3N4/CoMn2O4, 18.3 μmol h−1, is four times higher than that of pristine g‐C3N4. To further provide more active sites for water oxidation, novel mesoporous MOFs are utilized as a host material to realize the strategy [87]. Co‐based POM possessing stable water oxidation on central CoIII sites is coupled with MIL‐100(Fe), which not only immobilizes homogeneous Co‐POM cluster but also contributes more surface areas [88]. The results reveal that a 1.72‐fold increasing of oxygen yield and TOF of 9.2 × 10−3 s−1 are achieved for the Co‐POM/MIL‐100(Fe) hybrids.
2.5 Perspective
The energy shortage and environmental‐related problems are becoming the worsening global crisis and the great challenges for human in the twenty‐first century. The artificial photosynthesis process involved in transformation of carbon dioxide and water to value‐added chemical fuels is a promising strategy to rebuild the global energy consumption and elemental balance, and the potential rewards are enormous. Up to now, the main goal of scientists is to synthesize photoactive materials that are able to chemically couple these light‐driven redox reactions together and to achieve conversion efficiency and selectivity that outperforms nature's photosynthesis. However, photoconversion of carbon dioxide with water contains thermodynamically uphill, multi‐electron, multi‐hole, and multi‐proton processes occurring on a multicomponent photocatalyst, where many challenges are presented in the fields of catalysis, energy science, semiconductor physics, and engineering. To develop effective artificial photosynthesis and conversion, several key considerations must be balanced, including the following: (i) A deep understanding of processes that occur on the surface of photocatalysts during artificial photosynthesis processes, e.g. adsorption/desorption of gaseous reactants, products, and intermediates, as well as the role of adsorbed water. (ii) The potential great improvement of efficiency in carbon dioxide photoreduction can result from significantly increasing the lifetime of the charge‐separated state. The time scale of this electron–hole recombination is two to 3 orders of magnitude faster than other electron transfer processes. Therefore, any process that inhibits electron–hole recombination would greatly increase the efficiency and rates of carbon dioxide reduction and water oxidation. For example, electrical conductivity and diffusion length of the photocatalyst should be as high as possible to minimize recombination of electron–hole pairs. Ultrathin nanostructures may also facilitate the charge carrier transport to