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The Populist Century. Pierre RosanvallonЧитать онлайн книгу.

The Populist Century - Pierre  Rosanvallon


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of left-wing populist tendencies. Laclau stressed that, “as a condition of its emergence, populism requires verticality of a new type. The people, as a collective actor, has to shape itself around a certain identity. But that identity is not automatic: it must be constructed.”8 This means, for Laclau, that alongside the “horizontal expressions of democratic equivalencies” there has to be a “vertical articulation around a hegemonic signifier that, in most cases, is the name of a leader.”9 Mouffe has the same view: “To turn heterogeneous demands into a collective will it’s necessary to have a figure who can represent that unity, and I don’t think there can be a populist movement without leadership, that’s for sure.”10

      1  1 Jean-Luc Mélenchon notes about La France Insoumise, significantly: “We do not want to be a party. A party is a tool of a class. A movement is the organized form of the people.” L’Hebdo, no. 174 (October 18, 2017).

      2  2 On this point, see my book Le peuple introuvable: Histoire de la représentation démocratique (Paris: Gallimard, 1998).

      3  3 See Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Escritos politicos (Bogotá: El Ancore Editores, 1985).

      4  4 Juan Domingo Perón, El modelo argentino (Gualeguychú: Tolemia, 2011), p. 11.

      5  5 Hugo Chávez, in a speech delivered 12 July 2012; the same formulas were repeated verbatim September 9 and 24, 2012.

      6  6 Let us note that Subcomandante Marcos adopted the same approach, from his refuge in Chiapas, Mexico, to justify wearing a face-covering hood at all times. When anyone asked him what was hiding under the mask, he would answer: “If you want to know who Marcos is, get a mirror; the face you’ll see is Marcos’s. Because Marcos is you, a woman; he is you, a man; he is you, an indigenous person, a farmer, a soldier, a student . . . We are all Marcos, a whole insurgent people” (cited by Ignacio Ramonet in Marcos, la dignité rebelle: Conversations avec le sous-commandant Marcos [Paris: Galilée, 2001]; emphasis added).

      7  7 Hugo Chávez, Seis discorsos del Presidente constitutional de Venezuela (Caracas: Ediciones de la Presidencia de la República, 2000), p. 47.

      8  8 Ernesto Laclau, “Logiques de la construction politique et identités populaires,” in Jean-Louis Laville and José Luis Coraggio, eds., Les gauches du XXIe siècle: Un dialogue Nord–Sud (Lormont: Le Bord de l’eau, 2016), p. 153.

      9  9 Ibid., p. 156.

      10 10 Chantal Mouffe and Íñigo Errejón, Podemos: In the Name of the People, trans. Sirio Canós Donnay (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 2016), p. 109.

      11 11 On the issue of the introduction of a leader into left-wing political thought, see for example the work of Jean-Claude Monod, Qu’est-ce qu’un chef en démocratie? Politiques du charisme (Paris: Seuil, 2012). See also the postface written for the second edition of that work in the “Points” series (Paris: Seuil, 2017).

      12 12 To pursue this notion further, one can turn to Raymond Carré de Malberg, who presents the organ theory in German public law in the late nineteenth century in his comprehensive Contribution à la théorie générale de l’Etat, 2 vols. (Paris: Recueil Sirey, 1920–2). In populism, then, there is an implicit transposition of the theory of the organ into the figure of the leader (whereas Carré de Malberg made Parliament the organ of a nation, an entity that was unrepresentable in itself).

      13 13 Jean-Luc Mélenchon, citing Robespierre, in L’ère du peuple (Paris: Fayard, 2014), p. 31.

      14 14 Remarks reported in Lilian Alemagna and Stéphane Alliés, Mélenchon à la conquête du peuple (Paris: Robert Laffont, [2012] 2018), p. 410. The citations that follow are from the same text.

      15 15 Interview in Le 1 Hebdo, no. 174 (October 18, 2017). Let us also recall that during the contested search of the France Insoumise headquarters on October 16, 2018, he did not hesitate to say “I am the Republic” (tweaking a formula attributed to Louis XIV), “My person is sacred,” and “I am more than Jean-Luc Mélenchon, I am 7 million persons” (remarks reported in Le Monde, October 19, 2018).

      16 16 Donald J. Trump, near the end of his acceptance speech at the Republican National Convention on 22 July 2016. Transcript published by The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/22/us/politics/trump-transcript-rnc-address.html.

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A POLITICS AND A PHILOSOPHY OF ECONOMICS: NATIONAL PROTECTIONISM

      The history of modern economies is embedded in the long-term evolution and expansion of exchanges at both the intranational and international levels. The increasing specialization of productive activities and the development of economies of scale have thus tended to deterritorialize economies and to create


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